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To what extent can meditation be described as central to Buddhist practice?To adopt a typically Buddhist standpoint, meditation both is and is not central to Buddhist practice. It is true that "meditation is the primary focus of what we might call mainstream Buddhism" [u11-13, 8.4.1]. It is assumed, and taken for granted throughout Buddhist teachings and attitudes. It can be considered a prerequisite for all Buddhist thought. However, it can not really be considered a goal. At no point does the Buddha decree "you shall meditate five time daily" for example. Rather than a goal, task, or duty, it is a method through which enlightenment can be attained "Enlightenment requires ... the wisdom that comes from meditation" [u11-13, 9.1.2]. But what is meditation? "Meditation is a powerful mind-changing practice" [u11-13, 3.9.3] Large proportions of Buddhist texts are mediation manuals. Monks are accorded great respect for their skills in meditation. A typical method is breath meditation (anapana-sati), when one focuses on the passage of breath into and out of the body [Reader, 5.6.1]. Also well know is the Zen technique of focussing on a conundrum such as "what is the sound of one hand clapping" [Reader, 5.7.1]. Many monastic orders use chanting as a meditative technique [u11-13, 9.3.1], but "Even the most mundane activity can be a form of meditation if carried out mindfully" [VC]. The idea being that when one's thoughts are suitably focused, one ceases to be distracted by the mundane thoughts of the everyday world, and can instead concentrate on deeper and more profound subject matter. "The techniques used in meditation training have as their goal a greater awareness of what goes on inside the self and in the world" [u16, p102]. If meditation is not central to Buddhism, then what is? At the risk of gross over simplification, it is the overcoming of the cycle of suffering and endless rebirths, and to transcend this existence which is essentially one of dhukkha (possibly best translated as 'badness'). To achieve this goal, certain fundamental truths about the nature of this life must first be understood and accepted. These truths (the Four Noble Truths) are of such a profound nature, that only deep meditative thought is sufficient to truly comprehend them. In this sense meditation is, if not central, then necessary to what is central. Buddhism is not really a religion of decrees, but the eight-fold path at least presents the student with a discrete set of guidelines. These eight goals (perfect resolve, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration, and understanding) are often divided into three sub groups, of which perfect effort, mindfullness and concentration fall in the category of Mental Discipline, or Meditation. Again, this is not saying "you must meditate", but rather "you should aspire towards these goals/perfections, and meditation is the way to do this". [u11-13, 3.7; also WIR, p3]. An account of the Buddha's original enlightenment describes it as happening while meditating under a tree [Enc, 270]. More detailed accounts have it that it occurred while he was in the fourth jhana of meditation [Reader, 5.1.2; u11-13, 3.9]. However, it is not generally implied that meditation is a sufficient condition for enlightenment (although see below on Zen Buddhism). It must be stressed that "all meditative states ... are part of samsara" [u11-13, 3.9.7] and are thus considered an earthly pleasure, and therefore ultimately dukkha [u11-13, 3.2.2]. To achieve nirvana, one must abandon all such pleasures, including meditation. To cling to meditation as a path to enlightenment is counter productive. "You have to let go without striving to let go" [VC]. Of course, as with all religions there are variations. Traditional Zen (or Ch'an) Buddhism maintains that "meditation is not a means to an end, but is an end in itself" [u11-13, 10.6.3]. The view is that the enlightened Buddha nature is within us all and merely needs freeing from the confines of worldly concerns. [u11-13, 10.6] Even if not considered a final goal, meditation can however aid a great deal in the quest for nirvana. At the earliest stages it calms the mind and focuses it inwards so that one may examine one's own thoughts and sufferings, and thus gain an understanding of them. "We practice so that we may understand ourselves" [VC]. Some of the more philosophical issues, such as that of the anatvar, or no-self, require deeper contemplation than simple intellectualisation. "To understand anatvar, one has to meditate" [VC]. At higher levels it can give great insight into the nature of the world, and into the natures of other worlds. "They may also develop psychic abilities such as memories of past lives or the ability to read minds" [u11-13, 3.9.4]. "The skilled Buddhist meditator ... can pass into states which correspond to the higher realms of Buddhist cosmology" [u11-13, 3.9.3]. In these higher realms gods and bodhisattvas are believed to reside, and they can be contacted and communicated with. It was through meditation that the recently enlightened Siddartha Gautama conversed with the god Brahma (see Hinduism), who persuaded him to take his knowledge and teach the world [Reader, 5.1.3]. Indeed the Buddha himself is believed to now reside in these higher realms, and can be consulted. Much of the Abhidharma (further dharma), especially that of Mahayana Buddhism was obtained through "the experience of meditating monks and the meditation manuals they produced" [u11-13, 5.1.1], and through the exploration of these higher realms. This might be either through discovering 'lost' texts "The texts were hidden by the Buddha in the realm of the serpent deities", or by direct conversation with the Buddha himself "Meditators were able ... to travel to places where the Buddha was still teaching in person" [u11-13, 6.1.2]. Note however the counter viewpoints that "the Buddha [is] utterly beyond the world" [u11-13, 6.1.4] and "after his death ... Gautama Buddha was no longer accessible to his followers" [u11-13, 6.3.1]. At the very highest levels of mediation, great powers are said to be accessible. The meditator realises that, as all things are impermanent and empty, the physical form is effectively illusory, and can thus be transcended. "The enlightened meditator is not bound by or limited to the traits that correspond to his or her physiological sex" [WIR, p14] There are many stories of enlightened women instantaneously switching their gender, for example to impress sceptical male observers [WIR pp9-11]. One can contact and invoke the personifications of deities, assuming their properties. One can even achieve "literal transformation into the form and attributes of an enlightened buddha" [MMD, p39; also p37]. Meditation can also accelerate the path to enlightenment. This is particularly apparent in the "elaborate and esoteric meditation practices" of Tantric (or Vajrayana) Buddhism [WIR p12]. But even if the aim is not immediate and rapid enlightenment, but rather the more modest aim of a favourable rebirth, mediation is seen as a key ingredient in the task [MMD pp25-26]. There is a story of a lovesick monk being persuaded to greater efforts in his meditation by hopes of rebirth in a heavenly realm of nymphs [MMD, p34]. Whereas religions such as Islam and Sikhism emphasise the follower's part in a global community, Buddhism has always emphasised a more solitary, contemplative practice. [u16, p101] To this end the monastic lifestyle is geared. It is an opportunity to free oneself from the burdens of the world (such as tending buffalo [VC]). "The serious practice of meditation should not be distracted by concern for the world's problems" [u16 p102]. This is not to say all monastic orders place equal emphasis on mediation. While traditional Zen (as noted earlier) places great, almost supreme importance on meditation, the focus of the vast majority of Zen temples in Japan is "largely taken up with funeral rites and rituals for ancestors" [u16, p112; also R5.16]. Theravada monks also may pay more attention to the preservation of sacred texts [u11-13, 9.3.1]. Meditation's role in Buddhism could be compared to that of prayer in Christianity. It is nowhere mandated (as it is in Islam for example), but it is encouraged. However, note that Buddhism also features prayer, as well as various other rituals, e.g. the placation of earth spirits when erecting a new temple [SP pp9-10]. A less obvious comparison though is with pilgrimage. While Islam mandates a pilgrimage to Mecca, Buddhists take internal mental pilgrimages. "I have not seen another place of pilgrimage blissful like my own body" [SP, p31]. Sacred sites are said to correspond to states of meditation. As physically travelling to these sites represents a step on the path to enlightenment, so too do stages of meditation represent physical travel to the sacred sites. "He may thus undertake an internal pilgrimage to those twenty four sacred places". [SP p26; also p31]. In conclusion, it could be said that while mediation does not feature highly in Buddhist doctrine, it actually is central to Buddhist practice. Bibliography
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